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In mathematical analysis, an improper integral is an extension of the notion of a definite integral to cases that violate the usual assumptions for that kind of integral. [ 1] In the context of Riemann integrals (or, equivalently, Darboux integrals ), this typically involves unboundedness, either of the set over which the integral is taken or ...
Proper time. In relativity, proper time (from Latin, meaning own time) along a timelike world line is defined as the time as measured by a clock following that line. The proper time interval between two events on a world line is the change in proper time, which is independent of coordinates, and is a Lorentz scalar. [ 1]
e. In mathematics, an integral is the continuous analog of a sum, which is used to calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations. Integration, the process of computing an integral, is one of the two fundamental operations of calculus, [ a] the other being differentiation. Integration was initially used to solve problems in mathematics and ...
Proper motion may alternatively be defined by the angular changes per year in the star's right ascension ( μα) and declination ( μδ) with respect to a constant epoch . The components of proper motion by convention are arrived at as follows. Suppose an object moves from coordinates (α 1, δ 1) to coordinates (α 2, δ 2) in a time Δ t.
Comoving distance and proper distance. Comoving distance is the distance between two points measured along a path defined at the present cosmological time. For objects moving with the Hubble flow, it is deemed to remain constant in time. The comoving distance from an observer to a distant object (e.g. galaxy) can be computed by the following ...
Lorentz factor. where and v is the relative velocity between two inertial frames . For two frames at rest, γ = 1, and increases with relative velocity between the two inertial frames. As the relative velocity approaches the speed of light, γ → ∞. Time dilation (different times t and t' at the same position x in same inertial frame)
Proper length [1] or rest length [2] is the length of an object in the object's rest frame . The measurement of lengths is more complicated in the theory of relativity than in classical mechanics. In classical mechanics, lengths are measured based on the assumption that the locations of all points involved are measured simultaneously.
In the proper frame of the electrons, the undulator is contracted which leads to an increased radiation frequency. Additionally, to find out the frequency as measured in the laboratory frame, one has to apply the relativistic Doppler effect. So, only with the aid of length contraction and the relativistic Doppler effect, the extremely small ...