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In a 1964 article entitled Fourth Test of General Relativity, Irwin Shapiro wrote: Because, according to the general theory, the speed of a light wave depends on the strength of the gravitational potential along its path, these time delays should thereby be increased by almost 2×10 −4 sec when the radar pulses pass near the sun. Such a ...
Their work borrowed heavily from the theoretical and mathematical ideas found in John Burr Williams 1938 book "The Theory of Investment Value," which put forth the dividend discount model 18 years before Gordon and Shapiro. When dividends are assumed to grow at a constant rate, the variables are: is the current stock price.
It is known that ζ(3) is irrational (Apéry's theorem) and that infinitely many of the numbers ζ(2n + 1) : n ∈ , are irrational. There are also results on the irrationality of values of the Riemann zeta function at the elements of certain subsets of the positive odd integers; for example, at least one of ζ (5), ζ (7), ζ (9), or ζ (11 ...
The amplitude of the spherical harmonic (magnitude and sign) at a particular polar and azimuthal angle is represented by the elevation of the plot at that point above or below the surface of a uniform sphere. The magnitude is also represented by the saturation of the color at a given point. The phase is represented by the hue at a given point.
The binomial approximation is useful for approximately calculating powers of sums of 1 and a small number x. It states that. It is valid when and where and may be real or complex numbers . The benefit of this approximation is that is converted from an exponent to a multiplicative factor. This can greatly simplify mathematical expressions (as in ...
In mathematics, Ramanujan's congruences are the congruences for the partition function p ( n) of type discovered by mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan : In plain words, e.g., the first congruence means that If a number is 4 more than a multiple of 5, i.e. it is in the sequence. 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, 29, . . . then the number of its partitions is a ...
Specifically, they are the inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions, [10] and are used to obtain an angle from any of the angle's trigonometric ratios. Inverse trigonometric functions are widely used in engineering, navigation, physics, and geometry .
For the negative-power portion of a Laurent series, see Principal part. In mathematics, the Cauchy principal value, named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy, is a method for assigning values to certain improper integrals which would otherwise be undefined. In this method, a singularity on an integral interval is avoided by limiting the integral ...
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